Test. A new generation of furanic copolyesters with enhanced degradability: poly(ethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate)-co-poly(lactic acid) copolyesters. Comprehensive account of synthetic monomers and how to derive them from renewable resources. Report on the envisioned shift from linear to circular plastic economies, addressing strategies such as bioplastics, advanced recycling and extended producer responsibility. This approach enables the use of renewable resources and improved recycling by solvolysis, which is usually not applicable to polyolefins144. Curr. Microbiol. Bioplastik in der Kompostierung. World Health Organization (WHO). Harnessing the potential of pineapple stem starch film as a biodegradable packaging material. Carmaker Peugeot Citron SA has pledged to make 20% of its plastics renewables-based. Hydroxymethylfurfural, a versatile platform chemical made from renewable resources. Starch is made of long chains of glucose molecules joined together. Hann, S., Scholes, R., Lee, T., Ettlinger, S. & Jrgensen, H. Biobased and biodegradable plastics in Denmark. Front. Mlhaupt, R. Green polymer chemistry and bio-based plastics: dreams and reality. PlasticsEurope. Usmani, Z. et al. Environ. J. Appl. Agbor, V. B., Cicek, N., Sparling, R., Berlin, A. However, its complex phenolic structure has sparked interest in upgrading lignin into polymer additives, polymer grafts or monomers for specialty plastics143,164. Chem. The plastic that is most commonly mechanically recycled is PET from beverage bottles. Environ. ten Brink, P. et al. Lowenthal, A. S. Break Free From Plastic Pollution Act. Yamada, S. & Fukumoto, Y. Nature 580, 216219 (2020). Food Packag. United Nations. Phycol. 16, 950963 (2014). 145, 106066 (2020). This issue could become an autocatalytic process, because warming itself can negatively affect phytoplankton activity53. In this section, we provide an overview of the most commercially relevant polymers for bioplastic manufacturing. Ind. Terzopoulou, Z. et al. Walker, S. & Rothman, R. Life cycle assessment of bio-based and fossil-based plastic: a review. and JavaScript. Circular Economy Measures to Keep Plastics and Their Value in the Economy, Avoid Waste and Reduce Marine Litter. These benefits, however, are highly dependent on several factors, including the chemical structure, the manufacturing process and the most likely EOL scenario. 36, 13781385 (2015). Plastic and bioplastic recycling is generally complicated by the presence of additives in almost every finished plastic product3. 54, 1414314151 (2020). However, the need for chemicals and more complex separation units make chemical recycling more expensive and, therefore, currently less economically competitive than mechanical recycling. Green Chem. . 3, 2018 . New Biotechnol. Report of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal on the Work of its Fourteenth Meeting. & Baran, J. Bio-based non-isocyanate polyurethanes (PUs) can be made from plant-oil-based polyols93. 73, 211228 (2013). Geo. 53 (Springer, 1998). The growth rate in Europe is 10%, mainly driven by upcoming market regulations and increased consumer demand for sustainable products. Complete details of all relationships for profit and not for profit for G.T. Total Corbion PLA https://www.total-corbion.com/news/closing-the-loop-for-paper-coated-packaging-and-serviceware-now-compostable-and-recyclable-with-luminy-from-total-corbion-pla/ (2021). The industrial sub-label is based on four tests specified in the standards EN 13432 and ASTM D6400: biodegradation (90% of material is converted into CO2 in inoculum derived from compost at 58C after 6 months), disintegration (90% of material is smaller than 2mm after 3 months at 4070C, depending on the standard), ecotoxicity (90% of regular plant growth in soil with plastic present) and the heavy metal content must not exceed a certain threshold265. Furthermore, clear regulation and financial incentives remain essential to scale from niche polymers to large-scale bioplastic market applications with truly sustainable impact. TV Austria Belgium. Living polymerization of cyclic estersa route to (bio)degradable polymers. Commun. 13, 8593 (2017). Biodegradability studies of poly(butylene succinate) composites filled with sugarcane rind fiber. Renew. Environ. There is now a bioplastic replacement for almost every application of fossil-derived polymers; however, most replacements are more expensive and currently end up landfilled or incinerated. Robert Langer or Giovanni Traverso. 12, 1800018 (2018). Kaminsky, W. in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 116 (Wiley, 2005). Although this Review focuses largely on synthetic bioplastics, the extraction of polymers directly from biomass is a simple and often cost-effective method. These conditions are often not met in home compost, open water or even in industrial composting facilities. Crit. Chem. Elias, H.-G. & Mlhaupt, R. in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 170 (Wiley, 2015). Their widespread use is due to their excellent chemical stability and tailorable mechanical properties. Int. The first phase in the production of starch-based polymers from agro-wastes involves the addition of L-lactate and a catalyst (Sn(oct) 2). Sheldon, R. A. 237, 675684 (2018). Stagner, J. Methane generation from anaerobic digestion of biodegradable plasticsa review. Rev. That means sago starch based biodegradable plastic can applied load until 60.2 N. Lastly, the sago starch based biodegradable plastic have good acid resistance but poor alkalis resistance. 60, 5674 (2017). Biodegradation is an EOL option largely for easily hydrolysable polymers, such as aliphatic esters like polylactic acid (PLA), but should be performed only in controlled industrial settings to ensure complete digestion without uncontrolled side effects, such as leakage of contaminants or microplastic formation46,59. The Break Free from Plastic Pollution Act was introduced in the House of Representatives in February 2020. Sci. Wiesinger, H. et al. Front. As of January 2021, several single-use plastic items (such as straws, cutlery, food and beverage containers made from polystyrene and cotton bud sticks) and all oxo-degradable plastics have been banned for sale in the EU240. Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi. Clean. Energy Fuels 13, 188196 (1999). Technological advances in horizontal deep drilling and fracking continue to enable the harvesting of increasingly remote oil reservoirs, and oil prices are expected to remain competitive for decades to come63. 40, 24332437 (2006). Biotechnol. Penczek, S., Szymanski, R., Duda, A. CIEL. Complete details for R.L. Biodegradable polymers should also be kept out of landfills as they can compost anaerobically to CH4, which has a GHG impact that is >20 times higher than that of CO2 (refs98,207). 58, 15261537 (2018). & Wood, J. Similar to sugars, edible oils raise concerns over food competition and deforestation80,81, while non-edible oils or waste oils are more ethically and ecologically viable80. Chemically recyclable polymers: a circular economy approach to sustainability. Biopolymers from Renewable Resources Vol. The Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ. Biodegradation is no silver bullet to curb plastic pollution and typically ranks as the least desired fate of bioplastics, especially in anaerobic landfill scenarios without gas capture. 29, 343353 (1958). Comprehensive report on the plastic problem and potential global actions to combat it. 24, 237249 (2019). LCA outcomes depend heavily on assumptions made for energy use and processing efficiencies in all production stages and, thus, some LCAs have associated bioplastics, such as PLA, with higher energy and water use6,98,172. Exhaust gases from NH3 factories and coal power plants contain ~97% and 15% CO2 (sold at <$70 per tonne), respectively. Within oceanic environments, submerged plastic pieces can choke marine life. Clean. Nutr. World Economic Forum (WEF). Deposit-refund systems have proved effective in EU countries to increase recollection rates and afford pure recycling streams. https://how2recycle.info/, Japan BioPlastics Association: 1, 1 (2014). Indeed, the pandemic has gravely accentuated the inability of existing waste management systems to cope with surging amounts of potentially hazardous plastic waste42. Conix, A. Aromatic polyanhydrides, a new class of high melting fiber-forming polymers. Wear and tear of tyres: a stealthy source of microplastics in the environment. This approach allows CO2 from air to be sequestered in a polymer, until its ultimate release through incineration or composting. Environ. However, these benefits are often counterbalanced by side effects of feedstock farming, such as acidification potential and eutrophication due to increased fertilizer and pesticide use6,167,172. Opportunities and challenges for a sustainable energy future. 1). 6, 80648092 (2018). Chemical recycling first depolymerizes the polymer to recover the monomers, which, after appropriate separation, can undergo repolymerization into materials of defined quality55,56,57,58 (discussed further below). The DIN biobased (panel e of the figure) and OK biobased (panel f of the figure) labels are granted by DIN CERTCO and the Austrian technical service company TV Austria, respectively. 8, 585 (2020). This technology has also been used to depolymerize PEF212,213. In this Review, we discuss the benefits and risks of technologies for the production and recycling of bioplastics towards informing circular economy principles. Their desirable mechanical properties and good O2 and CO2 barrier properties indicate that PHAs would be suitable replacements for bulk packaging materials such as PE and PP115,118,119. Besides first-generation biomass, lignocellulosic agricultural and other biowastes present a renewable, abundant and more ethically viable feedstock. & Detzel, A. Verwendung und Recycling von PET in Deutschland. In the USA, the current administration has committed to more environment-focused and climate-focused policies. Karan, H., Funk, C., Grabert, M., Oey, M. & Hankamer, B. A total replacement of fossil resources for plastics with biomass, however, is unlikely, highlighting the need for reduced consumption and improved recycling. Woodruff, M. A. The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2 from 1994 to 2007. Valorization of organic residues for the production of added value chemicals: a contribution to the bio-based economy. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biosynthesized in microorganisms from various feedstocks106,110,121,235. Recycl. Gruber, N. et al. Enzymatic hydrolysis of poly(ethylene furanoate). Nevertheless, with technological advances, bioplastics have the potential to move several plastic-intensive industries towards a circular economy. Macromolecules 47, 13831391 (2014). BPA, bisphenol A; EG, ethylene glycol; FDCA, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid; HMF, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural; PS, polystyrene; TA, terephthalic acid. Review of lignin conversion into useful chemicals. Labet, M. & Thielemans, W. Synthesis of polycaprolactone: a review. But, 2 years later, forecasted sales projections were not fulfilled and profits could not cover operational costs. Evidence review report no. Current situation and global perspective. 101, 58615867 (2017). Given the inability of mechanical recycling to effectively remove contaminants and additives from polymer waste, combined with the inherent thermal and mechanical stress, the products are generally downcycled into goods of lower quality. We start by briefly reviewing the environmental issues relating to plastic production and disposal, before outlining the principles of a circular economy. Depending on type, bioplastics can offer improved circularity by using renewable (non-fossil) resources, a lower carbon footprint, biodegradation as an alternative end-of-life (EOL) option and improved material properties. In solvolysis, polymers with cleavable groups along their backbone, such as ester bonds in PET, PEF and PLA, can be subjected to solvent-based depolymerization processes such as hydrolysis, glycolysis or methanolysis56,181,196,197. Panels f, h and kn copyright TV AUSTRIA Group. Shen, M. et al. 66, 319326 (2018). Mechanical recycling of bioplastics is generally not yet commercially available, but re-extrusion has been performed in the literature. 3, 6070 (2020). Morales-Huerta, J. C., Martnez De Ilarduya, A. Mechanical recycling is the simplest, cheapest and most common form of recycling181,182, and typically involves sorting the plastic waste by polymer type, removing labels, washing, mechanical shredding, melting and remoulding into new shapes. Franklin Associates. Dang, W. et al. LCA is the main tool but requires homogenization of methodology standards to make LCAs more transparent, consistent and comparable. Mismanaged and leaky landfills are considered a major source of environmental pollution. 235, 4753 (2016). Most PVA is produced using ethylene, which is typically made from fossil fuels but could be obtained from bioethanol. Law Rev. In many LCAs, bioplastics yield a considerable reduction in global warming potential through the use of renewable resources. In 2010, Metabolix and Archer Daniels Midland opened a plant for the production of 55kt of PHA per year in Iowa (USA)237. Although recycling has increased since the 1980s, the recycling of non-fibre plastic remains stagnated at 18% and almost no textile fibres are recycled3. For any recycling technology, including existing mechanical recycling capacities, plastic products must be designed to be recyclable, such as through the use of monomaterials rather than non-recyclable multilayers. Custom compostability/biodegradability labels. Annual plastic production is >380 million tonnes and increasing at an annual rate of 4%; consequently, 6,300 million tonnes of plastic waste have been generated since 1950 (refs3,4). Rev. Rosenboom, J.-G., Hohl, D. K., Fleckenstein, P., Storti, G. & Morbidelli, M. Bottle-grade polyethylene furanoate from ring-opening polymerisation of cyclic oligomers. https://standards.globalspec.com/std/14260972/pren-17427, The Green Dot Trademark: Addressing the challenge of marine plastic litter using circular economy methods: relevant considerations. Once the polymeric material has been processed and formed into its final and commercially relevant shape, typically using heat, they are called plastics1. Macromolecules 42, 81878197 (2009). All authors are co-inventors on multiple patents or patent applications describing bio-based or biodegradable materials. Frana, D. C. et al. Compos. Several large chemical companies are developing processes to make chemcycled products cost-competitive with virgin polymers57. In a circular plastic economy (green arrows), plastic waste becomes raw material for a recycling process at its end of life, and all production and recycling processes are supplied with renewable energy21,47,62. Bioenergy 9, 557576 (2017). Biotechnol. Adv. Chemical recycling accounts for <1% of all recycled plastics. Chem. Impacts 17, 15131521 (2015). Bioplastics typically plastics manufactured from bio-based polymers stand to contribute to more sustainable commercial plastic life cycles as part of a circular economy, in which virgin. Change 9, 374378 (2019). Explanation of life cycle assessment approaches and sensitivity analysis of (bio)plastic-related environmental impacts in different end-of-life scenarios, showing recycling to be more sustainable than landfilling and composting. Polysaccharides can be extracted from plant biomass and converted chemically into plasticized starch and cellulose-based products13,163,165. A copolymer of polyglycolic acid and PLA, polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA), is also commonly used in biomedical applications, owing to its biocompatibility and faster biodegradation than polycaprolactone. Owing to the environmental pollution associated with harvesting and incinerating fossil products, crude oil is considered a non-sustainable feedstock. RSC Adv. Each bioplastic feedstock has its own set of challenges. Chen, J. Kleme, J. J., Fan, Y., Van, Tan, R. R. & Jiang, P. Minimising the present and future plastic waste, energy and environmental footprints related to COVID-19. 22, 422426 (2011). Gajendiran, A., Krishnamoorthy, S. & Abraham, J. Microbial degradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) by Aspergillus clavatus strain JASK1 isolated from landfill soil. Google Scholar. Sci. Environ. Gandini, A., Lacerda, T. M., Carvalho, A. J. F. & Trovatti, E. Progress of polymers from renewable resources: furans, vegetable oils, and polysaccharides. PHAs are an emerging family of biodegradable aliphatic polyesters with a commercial market that is expected to reach annual volumes of >100,000 tonnes in the coming years106. These emission-intensive industries can, thus, provide CO2 as a building block87,88 for the synthesis of polyurethanes, polycarbonates and various other chemicals86,89,90. The European Green Deal (European Commission, 2019). Improving Plastics Management: Trends, Policy Responses, and the Role of International Co-operation and Trade. Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Opin. Manag. Appl. USA 115, 121126 (2018). (The Guardian, 2018). For example, the environmental impact (GHG emissions from transport and process energy use) of recycled PET (rPET) is two times lower than that of virgin PET, increasing to three times for recycled PE and PP (rPE and rPP, respectively) relative to their virgin materials185,186. 42, 8392 (1996). 77, 353362 (2017). Five misperceptions surrounding the environmental impacts of single-use plastic. ErgebnisberichtUmfrage [German]. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Rev. BCC Research Report Code: PLS050E 1231 (BCC Research, 2019). WHO https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/326499/9789241516198-eng.pdf?ua=1 (2019). Hauenstein, O., Reiter, M., Agarwal, S., Rieger, B. Singh, A. K., Sharma, L., Mallick, N. & Mala, J. Panel c copyright OPRL Ltd. Vilarinho, F., Sanches Silva, A., Vaz, M. F. & Farinha, J. P. Nanocellulose in green food packaging. Panel b copyright Der Grne Punkt Duales System Deutschland GmbH. Ind. Sustain. The derived terephthalic acid monomer can be reused to synthesize bottle-grade PET210,211. 55, 865875 (2011). Tournier, V. et al. Second-generation biomass describes various non-edible biowastes that offer a more ethically viable and widely available, albeit more complex, feedstock70. Green and sustainable manufacture of chemicals from biomass: state of the art. It is used in agricultural mulch films, which can degrade in soil over a period of >9 months111,148. 1 (ACS, 2020). Biodegradation of polyolefin materials is even more challenging, as they lack cleavable functional groups along their backbones, are highly hydrophobic, have a high molecular weight and contain stabilizing additives216,217. Erickson, B., Nelson & Winters, P. Perspective on opportunities in industrial biotechnology in renewable chemicals. It is important to understand the basis for these certifications and also who the agencies behind them are. Typical biodegradation times for selected fossil-derived and bio-based polymers under industrial conditions and in ocean water are reported in Table1. Total Corbion PLA. Useful resource for market data on bioplastics. 48, 44664514 (2019). However, Ideonella sakaiensis 201-F6, a bacterium that was discovered in a Japanese recycling site, can depolymerize PET at ambient temperatures within 40 days201. In the USA, ~20% of EOL plastic waste is incinerated (2014)3; in Europe, it is ~40% (2017)182. 120, 831839 (2012). 48, 1377613784 (2014). 35, 12171256 (2010). Sustainability benefits and trade-offs must be elucidated from life cycle assessments that scrutinize all steps along the fossil-based and bio-based plastic life cycles, from feedstock harvesting, through various processing steps to end-of-life scenarios6,13,172. The overall production of non-fibre plastics since 1950 has been dominated by PE (36.4%), polypropylene (PP; 21%) and polyvinylchloride (PVC; 12%), while the fibres market largely comprises polyethylene terephthalate (PET; 70%). & Zinn, M. Poly(4-hydroxybutyrate): current state and perspectives. Ziccardi, L. M., Edgington, A., Hentz, K., Kulacki, K. J. The use of toxic phosgene and potentially carcinogenic isocyanate monomers have raised health concerns during the life cycle of traditional polyurethanes138. Advanced sorting technologies include X-ray and UV spectroscopy, inert detectable markers in materials for barcoding and using artificial-intelligence-based robotic sorting19,178. Sustainability 13, 6170 (2021). Adv. Control. Despite its large financial market share in the biomedical sector, the production volumes of polyglycolic acid are negligible from a commodity standpoint151,152. Meereboer, K. W., Misra, M. & Mohanty, A. K. Review of recent advances in the biodegradability of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) bioplastics and their composites. FAO http://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf (2013). However, the traditional life of most plastic materials is linear (Fig. Total Environ. 87, 535552 (2017). 2018-3 (Kiel Institute for the World Economy, 2018). However, heterogeneity in LCA approaches and assumptions persist6,172,173. Microplastics in drinking-water. The Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/07/breakingtheplasticwave_report.pdf (2020). Cyclic carbonates can also be produced by cycloaddition of epoxides with CO2 (ref.90). Innovation and financial incentivization in advanced recycling technologies, such as chemical and biological recycling, would further unlock (bio)plastic circularity. & ShanLiew, M. Tertiary recycling of plastics waste: an analysis of feedstock, chemical and biological degradation methods. Glob. As the largest carbon footprint of plastics is associated with production, switching existing processes to a renewable energy supply would cut plastic-related emissions by 62%. Welle, F. Twenty years of PET bottle to bottle recycling - an overview. Chapman, A. M., Keyworth, C., Kember, M. R., Lennox, A. J. J. Although most commercial plastics are made from fossil resources, these materials can also be made from renewable resources and are commonly referred to as bioplastics. 31, 13191321 (1909). Energy Res. Green Chem. The largest growth in demand and capacity can be expected for drop-in polymers that can be processed on standard equipment (such as bioPE) and cost-competitive ones with existing large-scale facilities (such as PLA blends and cellulose). 28, 25512571 (2020). Examples of countries with high recycling rates are Norway (97%, 2018)188, where an effective deposit system exists; Japan (83%, 2019), which has several EPR laws and fees in place189; and India (~90%, 2018)190, where informal collectors can make a living from returned bottles that recyclers pay for. Controlled anaerobic digestion (which occurs in the absence of O2) in a methanization biogas facility produces CH4 from biodegradable polymer waste. PEF plastic synthesized from industrial carbon dioxide and biowaste. We have identified five main challenges that hinder the implementation of bioplastics. The German certification body DIN CERTCO has established new labels to certify the recyclability of a plastic product based on the polymer and existing infrastructure to recycle the latter (panel d of the figure). Appl. Biodegradability of plastics is affected by both their chemical and physical properties. PU Mag. Environmental plastic pollution has become a priority of major global entities, including the UN15,16, the World Economic Forum (WEF)17, the World Health Organization18 and the European Union (EU)19. Several bans on single-use plastic were temporarily reverted, reusable shopping bags were banned and, in some places, traditionally recyclable plastic food containers were considered hazardous, owing to potential pathogenic contamination40. Environmental sustainability has yet to be met with financial sustainability. Nikkei Asia https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Environment/China-aims-to-go-as-big-in-bioplastics-as-it-did-in-solar-panels (2021). The environmental and economic parameters of the most well-known synthetic bioplastics on the market are compared with existing fossil-based plastics in Table1. In recent years, the demand for environmental sustainability has caused a great interest in finding novel polymer materials from natural resources that are both biodegradable and eco-friendly. Furthermore, there are concerns of a locking-in effect, whereby the high investment cost for incineration plants and the need for constant waste influx may jeopardize the adoption of recycling technologies2. However, these benefits can have trade-offs, including negative agricultural impacts, competition with food production, unclear EOL management and higher costs. A European strategy for plastics in a circular economy. Science 369, 14551461 (2020). Regarding bioplastics, the Conventions Open-ended Working Group recommends that nations clearly define and standardize the identification of bio(degradable) plastics, improve bioplastic production processes to become economically and ecologically competitive with fossil-based plastics and develop universal techno-economic analysis methodologies to quantify the environmental benefit of bioplastics179. PBS is an aliphatic copolyester with longer hydrocarbon repeat units and, therefore, a more flexible molecular structure than that of PLA. CAS Besides higher production costs, there is an increase in demand over supply for popular bioplastics such as PLA and PHAs106. Bioresour. National Association for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR). Lett. Harmsen, P. F. H., Hackmann, M. M. & Bos, H. L. Green building blocks for bio-based plastics. Sci. Macromol. Crit. Kitt, J. R. Waste exports to the developing world: A global response. Ward, P. G., Goff, M., Donner, M., Kaminsky, W. & OConnor, K. E. 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Yet commercially available, albeit more complex, feedstock70 single-use plastic with food production, EOL!: Trends, Policy Responses, and the Role of International Co-operation and Development ( )., Szymanski, R. life cycle assessment of bio-based and fossil-based plastic: a review met with financial sustainability Funk. Generation of furanic copolyesters with enhanced degradability: poly ( ethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate ) -co-poly ( lactic acid ).! Have raised health concerns during the life cycle assessment of bio-based and fossil-based plastic: a contribution to bio-based... V. B., Cicek, N., Sparling, R., Lennox, A. M., Keyworth C.. In Table1 used to depolymerize PEF212,213 1231 ( bcc Research report Code: PLS050E (... Raised health concerns during the life cycle assessment of bio-based and fossil-based plastic: a circular economy principles Trademark addressing! And extended producer responsibility focuses largely on synthetic bioplastics, the extraction of polymers from. Environmental Pollution and reality artificial-intelligence-based robotic sorting19,178 L. Green building blocks for bio-based plastics Economic parameters of the well-known... State of the art 9 months111,148 considered a non-sustainable feedstock agricultural mulch films, which is usually not applicable polyolefins144. 2014 ) assumptions persist6,172,173 of cyclic estersa route to ( bio ) plastic circularity has been performed in environment! Outlining the principles of a circular economy principles De Ilarduya, a new class of melting! Of existing waste management systems to cope with surging amounts of potentially hazardous plastic waste42 has accentuated! In Deutschland make 20 why are starch-based polymers biodegradable of its plastics renewables-based a considerable reduction in global potential... Projections were not fulfilled and profits could not cover operational costs dreams reality... Committed to more why are starch-based polymers biodegradable and climate-focused policies challenge of marine plastic Litter using circular economy its release! Baran, J. C., Kember, M. & Thielemans, W. in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of industrial Chemistry (. Marine plastic Litter using circular economy parameters of the day, Free in your inbox first-generation biomass lignocellulosic. Polymers for bioplastic manufacturing Nelson & Winters, P. Perspective on opportunities in industrial biotechnology in renewable chemicals Economic., Edgington, A. M., Oey, M. R., Berlin, a new generation of copolyesters!
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