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A lack of control is also a central pillar of Karasek and Theorells (1990) control-demand model of work-related strain, with stress potentially induced in teachers by the high demands of the job coupled with a low decision latitude (Michie, 2002). Differentiating performance is a hallmark of professional accountability. Google Scholar. pp 383-421 in Eric A. Hanushek, Stephen Machin, and Ludger Woessmann (eds) Handbooks in Economics Volume 3, North-Holland. On the other hand, in nations such as Finland, Italy, Austria, Norway and Sweden, there is little evidence that emotional contagion of accountability stress occurs. PubMedGoogle Scholar. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. 2023 Editorial Projects in Education, Inc. This paper has therefore explored this issue, using recently released data from TALIS 2018 and PISA 2018. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7222/CBP-7222.pdf. knowledge of authority relationships Who is responsible for what and to whom? We do however find strong evidence of emotional contagion of accountability-driven stress amongst colleagues within schools across several countries, with teachers more likely to feel stressed by accountability if their colleagues do as well. . Measuring and reporting school performance and attaching positive and negative consequences to meeting or failing to meet performance objectives provides incentives that encourage educators to concentrate on the subjects and materials that are being measured and to potentially alter the methods through which they educate students. Los Angeles recently took a step in the wrong direction when, in an agreement with the local teachers union, it eliminated the top category of performance. It is concerned with the impact of contemporary accountability on the subjectivities and identities of teachers and the production of accountable teacher subjects. This essay discusses the enduring legacies of Fredrick Taylor's scientific management in American schools and contends that contemporary administrative practices should completely demystify this taunting philosophy around which the management of many schools in America continue to be structured. https://www.oecd.org/education/talis/TALIS_2018_Technical_Report.pdf. We draw upon this information when addressing research question 2, with a particular focus upon whether teachers feel more stressed by accountability when school management regularly evaluate their performance drawing upon national examination or other test score data. Saeki, E., Pendergast, L., Segool, N., & von der Embse, N. (2015). Conclusion and Suggestions: Quality . May 30, 2023. All employees deserve to know what they will be held accountable for from the beginning. Having a classroom where students feel trusted, respected, and safe creates an engaging learning environment and one where students expect to be held accountable for their actions by not just their teachers but their classmates and themselves. Such longitudinal data would allow researchers to generate stronger evidence of there being a causal relationship with respect to many of the research questions we have posed. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. One possible interpretation of this finding is that headteachers generally do a good job in trying to protect their staff when they themselves feel stressed about accountability. A multi-level model has been used as an additional method to obtain the associations as a more formal way of accounting for the clustered nature of these data. OLS regression estimate illustrated by dashed line. The base specification will include controls for teacher age, gender, experience and length of tenure in current school. Finally, SMTs are fine to continue the common practice of reviewing student performance data as part of annual teacher appraisals; we find little evidence that this increases stress levels amongst staff. See Table 1 row 1 for further details. In particular, in Columbia, Croatia, Italy, New Zealand, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden and the UAE, annual SMT review of student performance data in teacher appraisal is associated with higher levels of accountability-induced stress amongst teachers when dismissal is a possibility. Specifically, because agents may act in their own self-interest, which may differ from the interests of the principal, then the goals of the principals may not be achieved. 4 This naturally raises the question of whether school principals or district . As policymakers and educators take advantage of the federal Every Student Succeeds Acts new flexibility, we hope they keep these facts in mind: First, reducing a near-exclusive reliance on test-based accountability does not have to mean reducing accountability as a whole. Learn 3 proven ways to encourage and improve employee productivity and accountability ! ET. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This second model specification hence attempts to tease out the stress teachers feel from accountability (because they are being monitored by senior management) from other stressful aspects of their job. Explore Unified Solutions Featured Solutions Behavior Support Attendance Intervention Schoology Learning For several decades, experimental psychologists and behavioral economists have examined various forms of accountability that can have either positive or negative effects in different circumstances. https://www.tes.com/news/englands-heads-most-data-driven. educating children) upon behalf of them as the headteacher. Electronic monitoring at the workplace: Implications for employee control and job stress pp 275289 in S. L. Sauter. Yet emotional contagion between headteachers and their subordinates seems, in most countries, to be relatively weak. These indicators are combined into a single accountability scale,Footnote 2 which has been standardised to mean zero and standard deviation one across countries. This of course has the potential to reduce well-being and increase stress amongst teachers, which are thus potential mechanisms via which the emotional contagion of stress from senior to junior staff may occur. We therefore explore this issue within this paper, producing new evidence on the correlates and consequences of accountability-induced stress amongst more than 100,000 teachers and 8000 school leaders from across the globe. Perryman, J. and Calvert, G. (2019). In a qualitative study of 22 science teachers from Indiana, Donnelly and Sadler (2009) found that some teachers felt accountability challenged their professionalism, led to teachers teaching to the test and had a negative impact upon the quality of instruction within their school. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2017.1360860. controlling for other sources of stress outside of that attributed to accountability), all estimates are still subject to an (untestable) selection-upon-observables assumption. This estimate is based upon a linear probability model, using model specification 4. Our team is dedicated to creating high-quality content that informs, educates, and inspires our readers to succeed in the fast . Flexibility is the idea that your plans can change very quickly, sometimes with notice and sometimes without. In the second research question, we turn our attention to teachers and whether they feel more stressed by accountability when student test scores are used to judge their performance. As Smith and Amick (1989, p. 280) note, although principals may see this as a desirable effect of accountability, in that it pressurises teachers and school leaders into raising performance standards, such work pressure can bring about adverse health challenges. Gilbert, C. (2011). If the standards set by the principal are excessive, then this may produce stress when employees fail to meet performance requirements (Smith & Amick, 1989, p. 280). Leverage New Funding Sources with Data-Informed Practices, ChatGPT & Education: 8 Ways AI Improves Student Outcomes, 4 Ways Teachers Are Making the End of the Year Less Stressful, Summer Jobs Have Become an (Unwelcome) Tradition for Many Teachers, The Teacher Who Inspired Me to Be Who I Am Today. This has been done via estimation of a two-parameter Item-Response Theory model. For instance, teachers may become more stressed about accountability if their colleaguesparticularly senior colleaguesare feeling stressed by accountability as well. a set of controls for background school characteristics, including the percent of SEN, disadvantaged, immigrant and foreign language pupils, headteacher experience (years), pupil-teacher ratio, teacher-teaching assistant ratio, teacher-administrator ratio, location and a scale capturing whether the headteacher believes instruction in the school is hindered by a lack of resources. Search over ten thousand teaching jobs nationwide elementary, middle, high school and more. Finally, we re-estimate this model separately for sub-samples of teachers depending upon whether they may face serious consequences if they receive a poor appraisal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-021-09360-0, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-021-09360-0. The estimated odds ratios reported in Table 4 are again close to one and do not differ substantially between the two sub-groups (see Appendix G for parameter estimates and standard errors for the control variables). Previous research from Canada has suggested that such emotional contagion may exist within schools (Oberle & Schonert-Reichl, 2016), though this focuses upon the flow between teachers and children. 6 Tips for Promoting K-12 Student Accountability During Distance Learning | PowerSchool Unified Solutions Simplify workflows, get deeper insights, and improve student outcomes with end-to-end unified solutions that work even better together. Assessing schools against the common metric of standardized student test scores provides policy makers and members of the general public with independent information regarding how well schools and school districts (and potentially teachers) are doing in comparison to their peers and outside performance standards. Appendix F illustrates the cross-national variation in this result, finding strong evidence of such emotional contagion of stress in some countries, but not in others. ET. {\mathrm{App}}_{j}+ \gamma . volume34,pages 532 (2022)Cite this article. potential job loss, harmful to career advancement), then teachers may find this particularly stressful (Smith & Amick, 1989). PISA in focus 9. Formulaic payments based on individual productivity measures are rare, particularly among professionals. {H}_{jk}+ \theta . {\mathrm{OECD}}_{k}+ \gamma . The principal-agent problem occurs when one person or groupthe agents (e.g. (1998). In particular, it suggests that there will be specific schools where there is an atmosphere of stress amongst staff about accountability, and where it will be important for such organisations to intervene. Lack of job autonomy can have deadly effect. . Research question 1 focuses upon analysis at the country level, linking the stress suffered by teachers and school leaders to the intensivity of the national system of school accountability. British Journal of Educational Studies. 1. TALIS 2018 Technical Report. When looking within schools, there is little evidence that the management practices of headteachers differ when they report feeling stressed about accountability, or that they transmit these feelings onto their staff. Using data drawn from three states within the USA, Ryan et al. Medical rounds, for example, create such accountability for doctors through standards of practice, observation of practice, identification of exemplary practice, and, most importantly, feedback to improve practice. Our specific interest is in the stress teachers and headteachers report being caused by accountability, operationalised by how they responded to the statement: Being held responsible for students achievement. With many Irish teachers migrating to England, and with the Irish education system moving in a more neoliberal direction as accountability slowly permeates the landscape, this paper reports on . Hatfield, E., Bensman, L., Thornton, P., & Rapson, R. (2014). The mean of this accountability scale is then calculated for each TALIS country, with greater values indicating greater use of (test score driven) school accountability. These resultsfor three different model specificationscan be found in Table 5 (see Appendix G for parameter estimates and standard errors for the control variables). Based upon the background literature overviewed above, we have developed a set of four research questions to investigate in this paper. (2004). Headteachersand other members of the School Management Team (SMT)fall in-between, with a role as both a principal and as an agent. Country-by-country results are again presented in Appendix B, flagging some potential exceptions to this broad, cross-national finding. - 51.195.137.240. Previous research has found that uncertainty about (and lack of control over) outcomes is related to an increase in anxiety (Grupe & Nitschke, 2013). First, for each teacher, we calculate the stress levels of their peers (i.e. Tue., June 06, 2023, 2:00 p.m. - 3:00 p.m. Berryhill, J., Linney, J., & Fromewick, J. Accountability eliminates the time and effort you spend on distracting activities and other unproductive behavior, while productivity ensures you can manage your time to meet deadlines efficiently. driven by incentives of performance, economic efficiency, productivity and value-adding. A simplified illustration of the principal-agent relationship in education can be found in Fig. First, data-driven accountability explicitly entails closer monitoring of the performance of teachers, using some kind of performance standard or metric. A growing body of evidence finds that there is substantial variance in teacher effectiveness, but that very little of it can be explained by easily observable teacher characteristics such as certification or advanced degrees. 2 illustrates the relationship between the scale of school system accountability and the percentage of headteachers (panel a) and teachers (panel b) who report being stressed by accountability at the country level. Accessed 09/01/2020 from https://www.tes.com/news/englands-heads-most-data-driven. For both headteachers and teachers, there is a positive association. School accountability and teacher stress: international evidence from the OECD TALIS study, Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, $${S}_{ijk}= \alpha + \beta . We find little evidence that this is the case. Teacher absenteeism is a concern: A study of six low and middle income countries suggested it averaged 19%. Potential psychosocial and instructional consequences of the common core state standards: Implications for research and practice. A secondary reason for sound teacher evaluation systems is accountability. Personal productivity and accountability are two important traits in today's working world. However, it is important that school leaders continue to use student performance data appropriately, and do not make inappropriate inferences about it capturing the quality or performance of any individual member of staff. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2019.1625716. www.informededucation.com/taking-control-why-autonomy-reduces-stress/. Finally, in parts of our analysis, we have been faced with a limited sample size. In other words, teachers are the key group who take action (i.e. England is a prime example. Given that strong mechanisms of school accountability may be particularly needed in decentralised systems (where schools and teachers are expected to reach specific aims, but are free to decide how), such systems may also have a different relationship between accountability and teacher stress. Posted by Guest Blogger on March 19, 2015. On the other hand, in Portugal, many more teachers and headteachers report high levels of stress due to accountability than one would anticipate, given the level of accountability in its school system. Fourth, accountability may change the atmosphere of a school as a workplace. Sacrifice shouldn't be part of the job. Teachers in Englands secondary schools: Evidence from TALIS 2013. Schools like Kansas Citys Kauffman Charter School in Missouri are creating literal transparency by putting interior windows on classrooms. Spector, P. (1986). (2015, p. 95) conclude that accumulating research suggests that test-based accountability practices have unintended, negative effects on teacher well-being, instructional practices, and student learning. {H}_{jk}+ \theta . Leader and Teacher Accountability in Education. This is taken as the school average (mean) of the 4-point question teachers were asked about stress due to accountabilityhaving excluded each teachers own individual response. International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership, 4(5), 113. First, they were asked to provide information on the frequency with which each teacher in their school is appraised by different groups (see Table 1 row 2). These models will control for teacher and headteacher demographic characteristics (gender, qualifications, whether work part-time, experience) and an OECD indicator at the country level. The TALIS data therefore have a nested structure, with teachers (level 1), nested within schools (level 2) and within countries (level 3). But lowering the stakes of tests need notand should notmean reducing accountability. Our analysis will begin by simply presenting a scatterplot of our school accountability scale (based upon PISA data, as described in the previous section) against the proportion of teachers and headteachers who report feeling quite a bit or a lot of stress from being held responsible for pupil achievement. (2009), also drawing upon data from the USA, investigated the link between teachers perceptions of school accountability and their job engagement. Indeed, Perryman and Calvert (2019) highlight how, for many teachers, it is the nature of the extra workload generated by the extensive, data-driven accountability measures that are in place in England that is having an impact upon the well-being of teachers and forcing many to leave the profession. {\mathrm{Head}\_\mathrm{Stress}}_{j}+ \gamma . It funds research that informs social policy, primarily in Education, Welfare, and Justice. We examine the following based upon teacher and headteacher responses to the TALIS background questionnaire: Whether the headteacher feels they have a need for Continual Professional Development (CPD) in using data for improving the quality of the school, Whether, over the last 12months, the headteacher took action to ensure that teachers feel responsible for their students learning outcomes, Whether, over the last 12months, the headteacher provided parents or guardians with information on the school and student performance, Whether school management undertook more frequent teacher appraisals, Whether senior management were more likely to use test scores in teachers appraisals, Whether headteachers were more likely to take material sanctions against teachers for a poor appraisal, Whether teachers were more or less likely to involve staff in decision-making, Whether the headteachers management of the school is more autocratic, Whether there is a collaborative school culture, Whether teachers hold high expectations for student achievement, Whether headteachers are more likely to feedback test score results to teachers. The first two specifications are the same as under research question 2 above (where teacher stress in other aspects of their job is added to the baseline model). Maria Teresa Tatto is a Professor in the Division of Educational Leadership and Innovation at Arizona State University, and the Southwest Borderlands Professor of Comparative Education at the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College. Potential exceptions include Columbia, Kazakhstan, Slovak Republic, South Africa, Sweden and England. How to Improve Employee Productivity and Accountability Guest Author | Culture & People | Employee Management | July 29, 2019 Are your team members missing deadlines? Similarly, qualitative research within Illinois (Byrd-Blake et al., 2010) suggested that the pressures of test-driven instruction and high-stakes testing were the parts of the job that teachers disliked the most. Fourth, the focus of this paper has been contracted forms of school accountability that serve a formative purpose. This is belied not only by reams of research but also by what every parent knows to be true: Some teachers are exceptional. For organisations looking to improve the mental health of teachersand reduce stress induced by accountabilityour finding of emotional contagion is likely to be relevant. Stress contagion in the classroom? Despite these limitations, we believe the findings presented in this paper may hold some important implications for education policy and practice. Interestingly, most differences are small and fail to reach statistical significance at conventional thresholds. {\mathrm{Account}}_{k}+ {v}_{k}+ {u}_{jk}+{\varepsilon }_{jk}$$, $${S}_{jk}= \alpha + \delta . However, we do find strong evidence of emotional contagion of stress amongst colleagues within schools, with teachers more likely to feel stressed by accountability if their colleagues do as well. What motivates people to teach, and why do they leave? Section 3 then describes the TALIS 2018 data, with an overview of our methodological approach presented in Section 4. Accessed 09/04/2021 fromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/teachers-insecondary-schools-evidence-from-talis-2013. ET. Voices from the frontlines: Teachers perceptions of high-stakes testing. One of the reasons why officials across the world have increased such scrutiny within the education system is due to a belief that such monitoring of schools and teachers is associated with higher levels of student performance (Hanushek & Raymond, 2005), a notion that has been supported by influential international organisations such as the OECD (OECD, 2011). Many teachers rely on summer as a time to earn much-needed extra income. Supplementary estimates entering each category as a separate dummy variable can be found in Appendix D. There appears to be a modest, positive association between the accountability-induced stress reported byheadteachers and by their staff. These skills involve prioritizing work, setting and meeting goals, . For instance, do countries with more intensive, data-driven accountability systems have more stressed teachers and school leaders? Correspondence to Some countries with particularly intensive accountability regimes are now facing serious issues with the recruitment and retention of teachers (Craig, 2017), due to the increasing workloads and the negative impact that this may have upon well-being (Perryman & Calvert, 2019). Second, data-driven accountability can lead to a loss of job autonomy. Accessed 17/07/2019 from https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7222/CBP-7222.pdf. Smith, M. and Amick, B. Accessed 09/04/2021 fromhttps://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/919064/TALIS_2018_research.pdf. To understand this first, we need to get familiar with the primary responsibilities of a teacher. Accountability is equally important since it is how we are assessed on productivity in the working world. Perceived control by employees: A meta-analysis of studies concerning autonomy and participation at work. An advisory group of education leaders reviewing the state's approach to assessing public schools based on A-F performance grades is proposing that several indicators be added to the state's school accountability system to more accurately and fairly reflect school quality and student success. We have chosen to focus upon the lower-secondary sample in which all participating TALIS countries were required to take part. This productivity assistant is based on GPT-3.5-turbo and is an extension available on Chrome. Further waves of TALIS might seek to ask additional questionsforming an accountability stress scale with at least metric measurement invariance across countriesin order for us to better understand the pressure that this increasingly prominent factor is affecting the well-being of teachers at work. Open-Ended Answer Ex: LinguaFolio promotes Self-Direction, Accountability, Responsibility. Are they more likely to use test score data in teacher appraisal (as a solution to the principal-agent problem)? Yet this is also likely to cause teachers stress due to the additional surveillance that it entails, the increaseand change in natureof teacher workloads, the only partial control teachers have over student outcomes and due to a potential reduction in their autonomy. Data-driven methods of accountability are seen as a way of dealing with this possible misalignment of incentives in education, thus solving the principal-agent problem. A host of research has suggested that lacking autonomy in the workplace is associated with higher stress levels (Spector, 1986), and that being controlled by others can be a major contributor to high stress levels (Relias Media, 1998). Department for Education research report. higher education institutions in the U.S. between 2002 and 2006. (2005), who suggested the transfer of emotions from senior staff to those more junior is particularly strong. They need to be documented, communicated, and integrated into a strategic agenda to increase attainment. Markets make firms accountable through customers ability to choose competitors; reviewers make restaurants accountable by publicizing their ratings; medical rounds make doctors accountable to their colleagues by requiring explanations of treatment. Specifically, we divide the sample into two groups depending upon whether the headteacher indicated that a poor teacher appraisal can at least sometimes lead to dismissal, versus those who said that dismissal due to a poor appraisal never occurs. Jennifer Lerner is a professor of public policy and management at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government. the headteacher moving from selecting to some extent to quite a bit when reporting their stress due to accountability). The changing roles of teachers in an era of high-stakes accountability. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2019.1625716. Does school accountability lead to improved student performance? Search thousands of jobs, from paraprofessionals to counselors and more. Indeed, it is important to remember that only around 200 schools (and hence headteachers) are surveyed in each country. 1900 and 1920, it was proposed that teaching could be measured and made more efficient using successful business productivity methods. Yet this does then not seem to stop concern spreading amongst teachers, once an atmosphere of fear starts to take hold in a school. Econometrica, 51(1), 746. (And when this may have consequences for their career)? We are grateful for their support. Weston, D. (2011). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/919064/TALIS_2018_research.pdf, https://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/194/320. An example of this problem within education might be the allocation of instructional time to different subjects. {L}_{jk}+{u}_{k}$$, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-021-09360-0, Coping with performance expectations: towards a deeper understanding of variation in school principals responses to accountability demands, Teacher attributions of workload increase in public sector schools: Reflections on change and policy development, School testing culture and teacher satisfaction, Preschool StudentTeacher Relationships and Teaching Stress, Underperforming teachers: the impact on co-workers and their responses, Intervening to Decrease Teacher Stress: a Review of Current Research and New Directions, I am here for the students: principals perception of accountability amid work intensification, Early Childhood Education Teacher Workforce: Stress in Relation to Identity and Choices, Acing the test: an examination of teachers perceptions of and responses to the threat of state takeover. Although insightful, many important questions about the link between accountability and teacher stress have yet to be addressed. 1. As part of the TALIS questionnaire, teachers and headteachers were asked about their sources of stress at work. Donnelly, L. A., & Sadler, T. D. (2009). Moreover, it again suggests that, even when headteachers themselves feel stressed about accountability, they try to not take negative actions (e.g. It wasnt until 10th grade that a teacher truly saw me for the first time. knowledge of costs This transfer of emotions within a group is known as emotional contagion, with the stress being felt by a teacher spreading like a virus to their colleagues (Hatfield et al., 2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2019.1589417. Expert teachers are being hired as instructional coaches to provide one-on-one support. Sociological Methods and Research, 22(3), 342363. In other words, data-driven methods of accountability provide a means by which principals can monitor the performance of their agents, to make sure that their incentives are aligned, and that the agents are working to meet the principals goals. The Productivity Commission's report on Youth Justice Services found 56.8 per cent of juvenile offenders in Queensland aged 10 to 16 at the time of their release from sentenced supervision in 2019 . It hence seems that, when a teachers colleagues are more stressed by the pressures of accountability, they become more stressed about being held responsible for pupils achievement themselves. Are teachers more likely to feel stressed about being held accountable for student achievement if their colleagues (and, particularly, senior colleagues) also feel under pressure? The Educational Forum, 76(3), 299316. other teachers who completed the survey within their school). In theory, this additional scrutiny of schools and teachers should help in aligning the goals and incentives of governments and parents with those of school leaders and teachers, leading to gains in student learning (Figlio & Loeb, 2011). According to the report, higher education finance has not changed from cost accounting to cost accountability. These are, of course, limited by the data available within the TALIS dataset, meaning some models include a relatively standard set of school and teacher controls. Teachers and Teaching, 23(8), 859862. Specifically, do teachers feel more stressed by accountability when (a) their colleagues and (b) their headteacher also feel stressed by this aspect of their job? how do headteachers hold staff to account within their school, and does their approach differ when they themselves feel stressed by being held to account?). Specifically, Australia, Belgium, Colombia, Denmark, Estonia, Japan, Kazakhstan, South Korea, New Zealand, Portugal, Russia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia and Sweden are examples of countries where teachers are particularly likely to report feeling more stressed about accountability when their headteachers also feel stressed by this responsibility. Morale of teachers in high poverty schools: A post-NCLB mixed methods analysis. This highlights how parents, government and school governors are the key principals in the education system, while teachers are the key agents. For instance, despite its extensive use of data-driven accountability, the USA sits just below the international average in terms of the proportion of teachers and headteachers reporting high levels of accountability-induced stress. We all deserve. Estimates will be presented as odd ratios in the main text, with marginal effects (probability differences) based upon a linear probability model presented in Appendix C. To begin with, we investigate whether teachers within a school feel more stressed by accountability when their headteacher feels stressed by this aspect of their job. In this paper, we specifically focus upon such contractual accountability systems that serve a formative purpose, with other possible forms of accountability (most notably professional accountability mechanisms) beyond the scope of this work. Despite the widespread interest in accountability in education, previous research on how it is related to teacher stress and well-being is limited, particularly outside the USA. Towards a self-improving system: The role of school accountability. Educational Research, 61(3), 257273. Teacher accountability is making it easier to fire bad teachers because there are policies written into the union contracts in many states that allow the school district to terminate these employees. This is counter to previous work (outside of education) by Sy et al. Accessed 09/01/2020 from www.informededucation.com/taking-control-why-autonomy-reduces-stress/. Helpful comments have been received on the draft from our project steering group, who we would like to thank for their input and support. Benevolent education policymakers must weigh up the risks and rewards of these possibilities before deciding whether to increase (or decrease) school system accountability is the best route for their country to follow. Educational Administration Imran Zakir 167K views35 slides. Create a free account to save your favorite articles, follow important topics, sign up for email newsletters, and more. Mary Haasdyk Vooys for Education Week
. Foster, D. (2019). Department for Education Research Report DFE-RR302. This paper will provide new insights into these issues, using data gathered as part of the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Developments (OECD) 2018 Teaching and Learning International Study (TALIS). Taking control: Why autonomy reduces stress. using a method that theyor the principalbelieves maximises student performance). Brill, F., Grayson, H., Kuhn, L. and ODonnell, S. (2018). However, one of the unintended negative consequences of data-driven accountability is that it may increase stress amongst teachers and school leaders. Although it may, according to previous research (e.g. Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. A similar finding emerges in our robustness tests presented in Appendix A, where we have split the sample into two groups using additional variables. Jerrim, J., Sims, S. School accountability and teacher stress: international evidence from the OECD TALIS study. American Educational Research Journal, 44(3), 519558. Third, relatedly, the questions included in the TALIS questionnaire provide only limited information about some of the constructs of interest. There is a pressing worldwide need for more longitudinal data on teachers, allowing researchers to monitor how their levels of stress and well-being changes as they get promoted, when school management changes or they move to another job. {P}_{jk}+ \theta . Students can distinguish the teachers who are challenging them to learn from those who are not. But others remain bound by rules that reject transparency, such as the Chicago public schools blanket prohibition of any use of classroom video in teacher evaluations. When looking within schools, there is little evidence that management practices differ when headteachers report feeling stressed about accountability, or that they transmit these feelings of stress onto their staff. 7 min. {\mathrm{Teacher}\_\mathrm{Controls}}_{i}+ \delta . But the behavioral science literature shows many unintended negative effects of outcome-based accountability, some of which have been evident in schools: narrowing the curriculum, teaching to the test, and even cheating. England). Address the whole child using data-informed practices, gain valuable insights, and learn strategies that can benefit your district. A simplified illustration of principal-agent relationships within education. schools, teachers)take actions on behalf of (and/or which may have an impact upon) another groupthe principals (e.g. Yet this close monitoring of student, teacher and school performancebased largely upon student assessment datamay also be having unintended and undesirable consequences. The second model specification is then estimated separately for these two groups, to investigate whether this factor moderates the results. a set of controls for teacher characteristics. Yet many are concerned about the impact that accountability is having upon the workload, well-being and mental health of school staff (Saeki et al., 2015) and if this is turning people away from the teaching profession (Ryan et al., 2017). Accountability need not be defined exclusively as high-stakes testing. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/teachers-insecondary-schools-evidence-from-talis-2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.031. J. J. Hurrell Jr and C. L. Cooper (eds) Job Control and Worker Health. Some authors, when speaking about the productivity of academic teachers, pay attention to objective factors i.e., the level of preparation of students and their competences, as well as their time . Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(7), 488501. Unless stated otherwise, these weights are applied within the analysis. How well were responsi- bilities for achievement discharged? It is thought that such a situation can lead to sub-optimal outcomes if the goals and incentives of the principals and of the agents are not well-aligned. One interpretation of this resultand more generally of those presented within this paperis that teachers feel the pressure of accountability directly from the system, rather than it being driven by the actions of headteachers in response to the stress they themselves feel from accountability-driven pressures. In a paper published in the journal Behavioral Science and Policy this past fall, we reviewed this literature and applied it to education, concluding that policymakers should use multiple accountability tools in tandem to promote continuous improvement in school performance. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2019.1589417. RAND. Snijders, T., & Bosker, R. (1994). In a survey of teachers mainly working in California, Richards (2012, p. 302) found that the constant pressure of being accountable was one of the top-five sources of stress in their job. A second area of my research focuses on teachers. Previous research has also suggested that the emotions of some team membersmost notably senior leadersmay be more contagious than others (Sy et al., 2005). Figure 1 The Teacher Labor Market. . Accessed 09/01/2020 from https://www.reliasmedia.com/articles/33797-lack-of-job-autonomy-can-have-deadly-effect. In a progress report presented . Or do they become more autocratic, with more junior staff less likely to be involved in decision-making processes? They suggested that certain types of accountability can lead to role conflict and reduced self-efficacy amongst staff. The economic theory of the principal-agent problem (Grossman & Hart, 1983) provides one explanation for the increasing use of data-driven accountability in schools (Figlio & Loeb, 2011). Oberle, E. & Schonert-Reichl, K. (2016). It has one of the most data-driven systems of school accountability anywhere in the world (Lough, 2019), yet also has one of the lowest levels of teacher job satisfaction and well-being (Jerrim & Sims, 2019) and is consequently struggling to recruit and retain enough staff within the profession (Foster, 2019). For instance, TALIS did not include any questions capturing the aims that accountability systems are expected to serve, with formative-based accountability systems being almost non-existent in some countries. Methods in school effectiveness research. A similar two-level model is estimated for the link between school system accountability and headteacher stress: where all variables are defined as above, except: whether the headteacher feels a lot or quite a bit of stress due to accountability (1) or not (0), unexplained residual variance at the headteacher level (level i). Again, this will help illustrate whether it is their colleagues accountability-induced stress that is driving the association, or if this may be driven by other aspects of how their colleagues feel about their job. Estimates based upon a linear probability model using model specification 3. Being productive means being able to produce a something of a certain quality with a given timeframe. Although accountability in education can be conceptualised and operationalised in different ways (Gilbert, 2011), it essentially boils down to key agents within the school system (teachers, headteachers, schools) being held responsible for student achievement (Brill et al., 2018). To trail our key findings, we find a modest, positive correlation between school system accountability and how stressed teachers and headteachers are about this aspect of their job. they may face dismissal). To begin with, Fig. Formally, this model is specified as: teacher/headteacher report of whether the practice is followed in the school (0=no; 1=yes), the accountability stress of headteacher j in country k, teacher demographic characteristics (age, experience, gender, length of tenure at current school), characteristics of pupils at school j in country kthe percent who (a) have special educational needs, (b) come from disadvantaged background, (c) come from immigrant backgrounds, (d) are non-native language speakers, the number of years of experience of headteacher j in country k, the resources of school j in country k, as captured by pupil:teacher ratio, teacher:teaching assistant ratio, teacher:administrator ratio and a continuous scale capturing whether headteachers believe that instruction in the school is hindered by a lack of resources, the location (e.g. The latter reflect the change in the probability of the headteacher taking the action, for each category increase in headteacher stress. Similarly, in most countries, teachers are no more likely to feel stressed by accountability when student performance data is regularly used by senior management as part of their appraisal (even when a poor appraisal may lead to dismissal), though with some exceptions (e.g. It is also worth noting that around 90% of teachers in England are evaluated at least annually by a member of senior school management, where student performance data is reviewed. The Nuffield Foundation is the founder and co-funder of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics and the Ada Lovelace Institute. Specifically, we have conceptualised accountability occurring at different levels, including both when looking at the whole school system (i.e. The results presented are based upon pooled data across all countries, with unadjusted descriptive statistics provided on the left, and regression model estimates on the right (see Appendix G for parameter estimates and standard errors for the control variables). Yet, in . Micklewright, J., Jerrim, J., Vignoles, A., Jenkins, A., Allen, R., Ilie, S., Bellarbre, E., Barrera, F., & Hein, C. (2014). John dewey and his Education philosophy Pranay Bhuiyan 120.3K views11 slides. https://www.reliasmedia.com/articles/33797-lack-of-job-autonomy-can-have-deadly-effect. A year ago, responding in part to growing dissatisfaction with accountability in the form of high-stakes testing, Congress jettisoned the much-maligned No Child Left Behind Act after 14 years. Educ Asse Eval Acc 34, 532 (2022). do countries with more accountability in the school system have more stressed teachers?) This is operationalised as (a) the headteacher/senior management team (SMT) conducting an appraisal with teachers at least once per year and (b) test score/achievement data being used as part of this appraisal. school discipline, number of lessons) and their colleagues overall level of job satisfaction. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Michie, S. (2002). In these nations, the estimated (log) odds ratios do appear more sizable across the two model specifications, and are usually statistically significant at least at the 10% level. Revolutionize student success! As implied by the work of Smith and Amick (1989), we also investigate whether teachers are particularly stressed when test score data are used in their appraisal and this may have material consequences for their career (e.g. Englands heads the most data-driven. This is an international survey of lower-secondary (ISCED level 2) teachers andheadteachers conducted across more than 40 countries.Footnote 1 It was conducted in most Northern Hemisphere nations between March and May 2018, though took place slightly earlier (the end of 2017) in some Southern Hemisphere nations. Research question 2: Are teachers more stressed by accountability when senior leaders regularly use achievement data to make judgements about their performance? Specifically, the model estimated for the relationship between school accountability and teacher stress is specified as the following three-level model: whether the teacher feels a lot or quite a bit of stress due to accountability (1) or not (0). Jones and Egley (2004) found that teachers in Florida felt that accountability was having a negative effect upon the curriculum, teaching and learning and teacher motivation. Education and Urban Society, 42, 450472. https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/14919/1/towards-a-self-improving-system-school-accountability-thinkpiece%5B1%5D.pdf. urban/rural) of school j in country k. The intuition is that these models attempt to establish how school management practices and school environment differ when the headteacher feels stressed by accountability, within what are otherwise similar schools. (2012). School leaders and teachers may no longer feel free to teach what they feel important, but instead focus upon what is being measured. 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20347. This article reviews research on elements of teacher preparation program quality and argues that professional standards can leverage greater quality if they are incorporated into professional policies governing accreditation and licensure that encourage schools of education to adopt the practices that will enable success. Data-based decision-making for school improvement: Research insights and gaps. (1979). Don't miss our expert-led webinar demonstrating practical ways AI tools will elevate learning experiences. Social Science & Medicine, 159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.031. Yet the strength of this relationship is modest (correlation 0.3, p 0.04), with some clear examples of countries with extensive, data-driven accountability in schools where comparatively few teachers and school leaders say that they feel stressed. Jerrim, J., & Sims, S. (2019). Our final research question is therefore: Research question 4: When headteachers are stressed by accountability, how do their school management practices change, and does it worsen the environment in the school? The accountability of teachers may be strengthened through peer assistance and review systems because they are jointly supervised by boards of teachers and administrators, gauge teacher competence with more useful measures, and emphasize assistance and personal growth rather than punishment. (1983). This article explores existing productivity measures in the private sector, and how these might be applied to education. Table 4 extends this analysis by dividing the pooled TALIS data into two sub-groupsthose schools where teachers never face dismissal following an appraisal (column 1) and those where dismissal is a possibility (column 2). The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. School autonomy and accountability: Are they related to student performance?. Putting these results together, we find strong evidence that stress about accountability gets transmitted between teaching staff and their colleagues. An Uvalde victim's family feels betrayed by officials withholding details from that day. upwards of 98 percent of whom are deemed satisfactory, according to a 2009 report from the teacher-workforce group TNTP. In theory, by increasing accountability, the aims and incentives of governments, parents, school leaders and teachers become more closely aligned, potentially improving student achievement as a result. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 59, 6772. To begin with, we consider whether teachers report being more stressed by accountability when their headteachers also feel under more pressure from this aspect of their job. Teachers in primary and secondary schools: TALIS 2018. Schildkamp, K. (2019). concept employing seven interrelated functions: knowledge of expectations What is to be achieved? This includes whether teachers feel stressed by (a) classroom discipline, (b) intimidation or verbal abuse from students, (c) having too many lessons to teach and (d) having to modify lessons for Special Educational Needs (SEN) pupils. These findings should be interpreted in light of the limitations of this research. D. Productivity and Accountability RATIONALIZATION: Flexibility and Adaptability in the classroom are two of most important qualities that every teacher must possess. President Obamas Department of Education may have been overzealous in seeking to evaluate teachers based on test scores, but its support for ratings scales that recognize exceptional teachers was on the mark. Productivity and Accountability Analysis: Productivity is the ability to create a product using these skills: setting and meeting goals, prioritizing needs, managing time, working ethically,. Two different specifications of this model are estimated, including a different set of teacher controls to test the robustness of the results. In this sense, the increase in total workloadas well as the nature of the workis likely to result in teachers feeling more (accountability-induced) stress. The contagious leader: Impact of the leaders mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes. Article Teachers needed to be trusted more (emphasis our own). An integrated neurobiological and psychological perspective. Karasek, R. A., & Theorell, T. (1990). This paper presents new evidence on this issue, drawing upon data from more than 100,000 teachers across over 40 countries. The robustness of these findings is tested in Appendix A where we also include possible (a) material sanctions and (b) impact upon career advancement (as well as the possibility of dismissal) when dividing the sample into the two sub-groups. InTable 6, we turn to the analogous results for the emotional contagion of stress between teachers and their colleagues within a school (see Appendix G for parameter estimates and standard errors for the control variables). Examples of countries where accountability stress amongst secondary teachers seems to be particularly contagious include England, Spain, Singapore, Denmark, Brazil and Hungary. Hanushek & Raymond, 2005), lead to increases in student test scores in the short run, our evidence suggests it might also be associated with higher levels of teacher stress, which could ultimately drive individuals out of the profession. (Appendix H presents alternative estimates using the school modal value of accountability stress rather than the mean. If school leaders feel stressed by the accountability system, how do their practicesand approaches to school managementchange? Might headteachers be more likely to implement material sanctions against their staff for poor performance, including dismissals and withholding pay rises? Reform burnout is one downside of teachers having to absorb too many initiatives provided by well-intentioned players who want to improve education, but often don't actually enter the classroom and deal with downstream effects of their policy decisions or "solutions.". Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. Here, our particular interest is in whether school management use of test score data is linked to teachers accountability-induced stress. States are now working on accountability plans to conform to the new law, and most states will reduce the influence of tests. The new Every Student Succeeds Act continues testing requirements, but now allows states to determine consequences attached to the results. {\mathrm{Account}}_{k}+ {v}_{k}+ {\varepsilon }_{jk}$$, $$\mathrm{logistic} \left({S}_{ij}\right)= \alpha + \beta . For instance, there is little evidence that headteachers become more autocratic in their management (see rows 810), become more likely to use test scores in teacher appraisals (row 4) and more frequently feedback test score data to staff (row 14) or that it leads to a less collaborative environment within the school (rows 1112). Here we do find consistently strong evidence of emotional contagion. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Accountabilitythe monitoring and use of student performance data to make judgements about school and teacher effectivenessis increasing within school systems across the globe. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. For instance, in England, secondary teachers are around 12 percentage points more likely to say that they feel stressed due to accountability if SMT use student performance data in teacher appraisals.Footnote 3. Higher values on this scale indicate greater levels of school accountability. {R}_{jk}+ \pi . So what is a teacher's accountability in the classroom, and what is its importance? As a result, the district will again become an inverted Lake Wobegon in which all teachers are satisfactory and none are above average. All other variables are specified as per the logistic regression model presented under research question 2. What constitutes accountability in teacher education? knowledge of results What was actually achieved? We then estimate a logistic regression model, exploring whether this variable is associated with the stress teachers feel due to accountability. She is a former president of the Comparative and International Education Society. Berryhill et al. (2013). Or maybe there's an attitude of apathy toward work among your employees? The measurement and reporting of a schools progress allows policy makers to assess how successful a school has been in meeting the states achievement goals. Accountability has become a four-letter word to many educators, who are frustrated with steadily increasing consequences attached to student test scores. A version of this article appeared in the January 25, 2017 edition of Education Week as Accountability Should Add Up to More Than Test Scores. Accompanied by the rise in a data-driven culture (Schildkamp, 2019), such contractual accountability systems in many countries have been synonymous with greater monitoring of student test scores (Hamilton & Koretz, 2002), which are increasingly being used to make judgements about the effectiveness of individual teachers (Bitler et al., 2019) and their schools (Goldstein, 1997). If both of these conditions are met, the indicator is coded as one, and zero otherwise. the USA). Fifth, as noted by an anonymous referee, we have not considered differences between centralised and decentralised school systems. A logistic regression model is then estimated, with this peer stress variable entered as a linear term: the accountability-induced stress reported by the colleagues of each teacher. It may also indicate that whole school approaches to reducing accountability stress amongst staff may be particularly efficient and effective, with a reduction in the stress levels of one staff member likely to bring benefits to others. Estimates are presented as odds ratios and refer to the increase in accountability-induced stress amongst teachers per each category increase in headteacher stress (e.g. This is supported by recent qualitative research in England (Perryman & Calvert, 2019, p. 18), with one teacher noting how: I do not think it is the children/behaviour that drives teachers away from the profession it is the lack of support and trust from management that ultimately is directed from the state pressure of constant tests, assessments and targets. 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